Understanding Learning and Instruction: Key Concepts and Theories

Every time a student finally grasps a concept they’ve been wrestling with, or a professional picks up a new skill while navigating a real-world challenge, something fundamental has happened: learning has occurred. But what exactly is learning? And how does instruction fit into that process? These two ideas – learning and instruction – are deeply connected yet often misunderstood. For educators working in higher education, understanding this relationship is not just theoretical; it shapes every decision made in the classroom, from what to teach to how to teach it.

What is learning? Definitions and perspectives 🔗

Learning is one of those concepts we use daily but rarely stop to define with precision. At its core, learning refers to a relatively permanent change in knowledge, behavior, or understanding that results from experience or interaction with the environment. But different schools of thought have arrived at this definition through very different paths.

The behaviorist perspective 🔗

Behaviorism defines learning as a change in observable behavior, resulting from interactions with environmental stimuli and consequences. Rooted in the work of Ivan Pavlov and later expanded by B.F. Skinner through operant conditioning, this view treats the learner essentially as a blank slate. Behaviorists hold that new behaviors or changes in behaviors are acquired through associations between stimuli and responses – and that is what counts as learning. Rewards, punishments, and reinforcement are the primary tools of instruction under this framework. While behaviorism laid the groundwork for measurable learning outcomes and remains relevant in skill-based training, it has limitations: it largely ignores what happens inside the learner’s mind and does not adequately prepare learners for problem-solving or creative thinking.

The cognitivist perspective 🔗

Dissatisfied with behaviorism’s exclusive focus on external behavior, educational psychologists like Jean Piaget turned attention inward. Cognitivism defines learning as a change in mental structures – specifically, how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Knowledge is seen as something actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive frameworks. This means learning is not just about reacting to stimuli; it is about processing, organizing, and integrating new information with what is already known. Cognitivists examine the learner’s existing mental structures to determine how instruction can be designed so new information is readily assimilated. Motivation, in this view, is largely intrinsic – learners engage more deeply when they see personal relevance in what they are studying.

The constructivist perspective 🔗

Constructivism equates learning with creating meaning from experience. Unlike behaviorists and cognitivists who see knowledge as something that exists outside the learner and can be “mapped onto” them, constructivists believe the learner actively builds knowledge through direct interaction with the environment and through social exchanges. Constructivist theorists hold that learning is a process where individuals construct new ideas or concepts based on prior knowledge and experience, generating their own mental models to make sense of the world. This is why constructivist classrooms tend to emphasize inquiry, exploration, and collaborative problem-solving. The teacher’s role shifts from expert to facilitator – someone who creates conditions for discovery rather than delivering pre-packaged knowledge.

Taken together, these theories inform educators about best learning and teaching practices and provide a rational basis for choosing specific instructional and assessment strategies. No single theory is universally sufficient; each offers a distinct and valuable lens.

How learning takes place 🔗

Understanding what learning is naturally leads to the question of how it actually happens. Learning is not a passive event – it is a dynamic process shaped by the environment, the learner’s prior knowledge, social interactions, and internal cognitive activity.

The role of environment and interaction 🔗

The environment plays a defining role in shaping what and how a person learns. Under the influence of others and the environment, cognitive and linguistic skills develop over time – which is why the learning environment and teaching play a crucial role in developing these skills. This is especially visible in Vygotsky’s concept of the Zone of Proximal Development, which suggests that learners can accomplish higher-level cognitive tasks with the right guidance from a more knowledgeable person. Social interaction – discussions, peer feedback, collaborative tasks – is therefore not supplementary to learning; it is central to it.

Cognitive changes during learning 🔗

At the cognitive level, learning occurs when new information is integrated with prior knowledge stored in long-term memory. Cognitive models of instruction view learning as a process that requires learners to actively construct new knowledge, and new ideas must be integrated with preexisting knowledge stored in long-term memory schemas. Working memory plays a pivotal role here – it is the limited-capacity system where active thinking and processing take place before knowledge is stored more permanently. When the cognitive load exceeds this capacity, learning suffers. Cognitive load can be controlled by tailoring instructional design to levels of learner prior knowledge, which is a key reason why well-designed instruction matters so much in formal education settings.

Neuroscience adds another dimension: neuroplasticity studies have established that well-organized learning experiences are associated with synaptic reorganization, promoting cognitive flexibility and long-term knowledge retention. In simple terms, structured and purposeful learning physically changes the brain – making the quality of instruction a matter of neurological consequence, not just academic preference.

Formal vs. informal learning 🔗

One of the most practically significant distinctions in education is the one between formal and informal learning. Both contribute to a person’s overall development, but they operate very differently.

What is formal learning? 🔗

According to Springer’s Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning, formal learning must include a predefined set of learning outcomes, an instructor, and an evaluation of individual learning achievements. Formal learning takes place within institutional settings – schools, colleges, universities, and accredited training programs. It follows a structured curriculum, is delivered within set timeframes, and results in recognized credentials or degrees. The key characteristics of formal learning include its systematic progression through levels, its reliance on trained educators, and its dependence on standardized assessment to measure achievement.

What is informal learning? 🔗

Informal learning is the truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills, and knowledge from daily experience and the educative influences and resources in their environment – from family, colleagues, media, and everyday problem-solving. It is spontaneous, unplanned, and not bound by any fixed curriculum or schedule. When it comes to informal learning, the learner may not even realize that learning is taking place – it simply happens as a byproduct of living and working. There are no formal assessments, no certificates, and no instructors in the traditional sense.

Why both matter in educational contexts 🔗

Formal and informal learning are not competing approaches – they are complementary. Recognizing the complementary aspects between the two allows formal education’s structured guidance to connect with informal learning’s flexibility and real-world application. In higher education particularly, this balance is increasingly relevant. MOOCs, collaborative digital platforms, peer mentoring, and self-directed study are all forms of informal learning that enrich the formal educational experience. In higher education, many institutions are developing blended learning models where face-to-face classes are complemented by autonomous, collaborative, and digital activities, effectively combining the accountability of formal learning with the authenticity of informal learning.

Instruction as a controlled environment for learning 🔗

If learning is the outcome, instruction is the deliberately designed process that facilitates it. Instruction is not simply teaching – it is the intentional arrangement of conditions, interactions, and content to produce reliable, measurable learning outcomes.

What makes instruction a “controlled environment”? 🔗

The word “controlled” here does not mean rigid or restrictive. It means purposeful. Effective instruction controls for the variables that can interfere with learning – cognitive overload, lack of prior knowledge, unclear objectives, or insufficient feedback. Structured instruction based on Cognitive Load Theory significantly reduces extraneous cognitive load, leading to improved problem-solving efficiency. When educators sequence content logically, chunk information into digestible units, align activities to learning objectives, and build in timely feedback, they are creating a learning environment where the likelihood of genuine understanding increases substantially.

How structured interactions enhance learning 🔗

In behaviorism, the teacher needs to be active and knowledgeable to set up the appropriate learning environment and elicit the correct responses from learners; in cognitivism, the role of the teacher is to structure the content of learning material; and under constructivism, the teacher acts as a guide or facilitator. Each of these roles corresponds to a different type of structured interaction – all of which are intentional, not accidental.

In classrooms, direct instruction comprehensively describes academic content, while active learning provides structured opportunities for learners to explore, apply, and manipulate that content. The best instructional design draws from both – providing clear explanations where needed and creating open-ended challenges that engage learners’ problem-solving capacities. As students move through phases of guided and collaborative learning, cognitive and metacognitive methods become the focus, requiring learners to apply knowledge, communicate their thinking, and monitor their own progress.

Instruction, interaction, and the learning relationship 🔗

At its deepest level, instruction creates a structured relationship between teacher, learner, and content. This relationship is what separates instruction from mere exposure to information. A student can read an article and gain facts; they can watch a video and gain impressions. But when an instructor sequences those inputs within a purposeful framework – setting goals, activating prior knowledge, building in practice, and providing feedback – the conditions for durable learning are genuinely established. Metacognitive skills are responsible for setting learning goals, determining learning strategies, monitoring progress, and making adjustments as needed – and well-designed instruction actively cultivates these skills in learners, moving them toward independence.

This is why instruction matters most not as a mechanism of control, but as a mechanism of support. The goal is not to make learning easier in a shallow sense, but to make meaningful, lasting learning more achievable – and to do so with intention, evidence, and care for the learner.

What do you think? How does your own experience as a learner or educator reflect the balance between formal and informal learning – and do you think current instructional practices in higher education do enough to account for the cognitive needs of diverse learners?

References

1. https://bcltraining.com/learning-library/comparing-the-three-major-learning-theories-behaviorism-cognitivism-and-constructivism/
2. https://thepeakperformancecenter.com/educational-learning/learning/theories/
3. https://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-research/cognitive-constructivism/
4. https://pressbooks.pub/lidtfoundations/chapter/behaviorism-cognitivism-constructivism/
5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562189/
6. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/86544
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9. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11852728/
10. https://elmlearning.com/blog/informal-vs-formal-learning/
11. https://infed.org/dir/welcome/informal-non-formal-and-formal-education-a-brief-overview-of-some-different-approaches/
12. https://www.thinkific.com/blog/formal-and-informal-education/
13. https://edly.io/blog/formal-and-informal-education-explaining-the-difference/
14. https://www.evolmind.com/en/blog/formal-learning-vs-informal-learning-where-vocational-training-is-headed/
15. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763424002069
16. https://www.idra.org/resource-center/unlocking-instruction-structured-teaching/