Exploring Philosophical Traditions in Adult and Lifelong Learning

Every educator – whether they realise it or not – teaches from a philosophical standpoint. Beliefs about human nature, the purpose of education, and the relationship between teacher and learner are not abstract ideas reserved for academia; they shape every lesson plan, every classroom interaction, and every decision about what learning should accomplish. In adult education, these beliefs are mapped across five foundational philosophical traditions: Liberal, Progressive, Behaviourist, Humanistic, and Radical. Taken together – as scholars John Elias and Sharan Merriam documented in their seminal work, Philosophical Foundations of Adult Education – these traditions offer a comprehensive map of how education has been understood, practiced, and contested. Understanding them is essential for any reflective adult educator.

Why philosophy matters in adult education 🔗

Philosophy is not just theory. It is the foundation on which practice rests. As Elias and Merriam argue, true professionals know not only what they are to do, but are also aware of the principles and the reasons for acting so. For adult educators, this means understanding why they teach the way they do – not just how. Each philosophical tradition answers three core questions differently: What is the nature of the human learner? What is the purpose of education? And what roles should educators and learners play? Examining these questions through five major traditions reveals the rich intellectual landscape that continues to shape adult learning worldwide.

The liberal tradition: education as intellectual cultivation 🔗

The liberal tradition is among the oldest in Western education. Its roots lie in the philosophy of ancient Greece – particularly in the works of Plato and Aristotle, who understood education as the cultivation of intellectual and moral virtues needed for a flourishing life. For Aristotle, a liberal education meant learning undertaken for its own sake, not as a means to an end – specifically, not for paid work or narrow vocational purposes. This is a crucial distinction: the opposite of liberal education is not scientific or conservative education but servile education – education directed entirely at instrumental, material gains.

Assumptions about human nature 🔗

The liberal tradition views human beings as rational creatures with an inherent capacity for reason and moral development. Education exists to activate this capacity – to free individuals from ignorance, intellectual passivity, and dependence on others’ thinking. This is reflected in programmes like the University of Chicago’s Basic Program of Liberal Education for Adults, which immerses adult learners in great works of literature, philosophy, and social thought specifically because these texts address fundamental and enduring questions of human existence.

Roles of educator and learner 🔗

In the liberal tradition, the educator is an expert who transmits organised knowledge, directs the learning process with authority, and challenges learners intellectually. Learners, in turn, are expected to engage seriously with difficult texts and ideas. The emphasis is on liberal learning, organised knowledge, and the development of the intellectual powers of the mind – with contemporary advocates including thinkers like Mortimer Adler and Robert Hutchins. While this tradition has been criticised for being teacher-centred and detached from practical application, its enduring strength lies in its insistence that education should cultivate the whole intellect, not just immediately useful skills.

The progressive tradition: learning through experience 🔗

Progressive education emerged as a direct challenge to the rigidity of traditional schooling. Associated most powerfully with the American philosopher John Dewey, progressivism holds that education is not a preparation for life – it is life itself. Dewey rejected the idea that learning happens through the passive reception of information. Instead, he argued that genuine learning requires active engagement with real problems, genuine reflection on experience, and the continuous testing of ideas against lived reality.

Assumptions about human nature 🔗

Progressivism assumes that human beings are inherently active, curious, and capable of growth when placed in meaningful learning environments. The University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, which Dewey himself founded, articulate this clearly: progressive education emphasises hands-on, experiential activities, collaborative problem-solving, and the development of the whole person. For adult learners specifically, this philosophy resonates deeply – adults bring rich life experiences to learning, and progressive education treats those experiences as educational resources rather than irrelevant background.

Roles of educator and learner 🔗

In a progressive classroom, the educator shifts from authority figure to partner and facilitator. Rather than delivering fixed content, the teacher works alongside learners, helping them navigate their own learning experiences, reflect on outcomes, and connect new knowledge to what they already know. Learners are active participants – not passive recipients. Dewey believed that interaction with the environment is essential for learning, and that passive recipients of knowledge learn very little. This principle underpins modern adult learning approaches such as problem-based learning and project-based curricula, where real-world challenges drive the learning process.

The behaviourist tradition: shaping learning through the environment 🔗

Behaviourism takes a markedly different starting point. Rooted in the psychological experiments of B.F. Skinner and John Watson, this tradition focuses not on inner intellectual development or personal experience but on observable behaviour and how the environment shapes it. For behaviourists, learning is essentially the modification of behaviour through carefully controlled stimuli, reinforcement, and feedback.

Assumptions about human nature 🔗

Behaviourism holds a largely neutral view of human nature: people are shaped primarily by their environments. Human behaviour is seen as largely predictable and modifiable – given the right conditions, any desired behaviour can be learned, and undesired behaviours can be extinguished. This makes behaviourism particularly useful in contexts where specific, measurable outcomes are the goal – technical training, competency-based programmes, and structured vocational education all draw heavily on behaviourist principles.

Roles of educator and learner 🔗

The educator in a behaviourist model functions as a designer and manager of the learning environment. Their role is to define clear objectives, structure lessons precisely, and deploy reinforcement – rewards for desired performance and corrective feedback for errors – to shape learner behaviour systematically. Learners, by contrast, are relatively passive respondents to external stimuli, with minimal emphasis on independent thought or self-direction. The behaviourist approach encompasses behavioural objectives, competency-based education, and structured programme planning – approaches still widely used in adult vocational and professional training. Its limitation is that it tends to undervalue the internal mental processes, emotions, and motivations that also drive adult learning.

The humanistic tradition: education for the whole person 🔗

Humanistic education represents a significant departure from both behaviourism and the more intellectual focus of the liberal tradition. Inspired by the psychological theories of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, this tradition views education as a deeply personal process – one aimed at helping individuals achieve their full potential, develop self-awareness, and grow as whole human beings.

Assumptions about human nature 🔗

The humanistic tradition holds an optimistic view of human nature. Humanistic psychologists like Rogers and Maslow emphasised that individuals are not passive products of their environment or unconscious drives but active agents capable of self-determination and change. Maslow’s famous Hierarchy of Needs holds that basic physiological and safety needs must be met before higher-level needs – including the need for self-actualisation – can be pursued. This has direct implications for adult education: an adult learner dealing with economic insecurity or personal crisis cannot be expected to engage fully with learning until those foundational needs are addressed.

Roles of educator and learner 🔗

In humanistic education, the educator’s role shifts from expert to supportive guide. The teacher creates a safe, empathetic environment where learners feel respected and free to explore their own feelings, goals, and potential. Rogers introduced the concept of student-centred learning – the idea that all human beings have a natural desire to learn, and the educator’s job is to facilitate that natural curiosity rather than force knowledge onto a passive mind. For adult learners, who often return to education with specific personal goals and life experiences that shape their identities, this approach can be especially transformative. The enormous impact of andragogy and self-directed learning in adult education has been seen as rooted in the humanistic philosophy of Rogers and Maslow.

The radical tradition: education as social transformation 🔗

Radical education challenges all other traditions by asking a question none of them fully addresses: whose interests does education serve? This tradition – most powerfully articulated by Brazilian educator Paulo Freire – views education not as a neutral activity but as an inherently political one. For radical educators, schooling either reinforces existing power structures or challenges them. There is no middle ground.

Assumptions about human nature 🔗

Radical education assumes that human beings are capable of critical awareness – of seeing, analysing, and acting against the social conditions that oppress them. Freire called this capacity conscientização, or critical consciousness. Freire developed this creative thesis in adult education by linking the language of criticism to that of possibility – the idea that recognising oppression is the first step toward dismantling it. His most famous critique targets what he called the “banking model” of education, in which teachers deposit knowledge into passive students. For Freire, this banking concept stifles creativity and critical thought, treating learners as empty vessels rather than active participants.

Roles of educator and learner 🔗

In radical education, the teacher is not an authority but a co-learner and facilitator of critical dialogue. As the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy explains, Freire’s critical pedagogy utilises dialogue among human beings who are equals rather than oppressive imposition. Learners are not passive recipients but active agents who examine their lived realities, question social norms, and work toward collective change. This is education with explicitly transformative goals – not just for individual growth but for a more just and equitable society. While radical education has been criticised for being overtly ideological, its influence on adult literacy programmes, community education, and social justice movements worldwide has been profound and lasting.

Comparing the five traditions: key differences and what they mean for practice 🔗

Each tradition paints a different picture of what an educator is and what a learner needs. In the liberal tradition, the teacher is an expert transmitter of knowledge. In the progressive tradition, a partner in inquiry. In behaviourism, a manager of the learning environment. In humanism, a supportive facilitator. And in radical education, a co-creator of critical consciousness.

These are not merely theoretical labels. They have concrete implications for curriculum design, teaching methods, assessment, and the power dynamics within any adult learning programme. A behaviourist training programme will look and feel entirely different from a humanistic personal development course – both in structure and in the relationship between teacher and learner. Similarly, a Freirean community literacy programme operates on fundamentally different assumptions than a liberal great-books seminar.

It is also worth noting that most adult educators do not operate exclusively within a single tradition. Research has shown that the scoring patterns of many adult educators are best described as eclectic – drawing from multiple philosophical perspectives depending on context, learner needs, and educational goals. The Philosophy of Adult Education Inventory (PAEI), developed by Lorraine Zinn, is a widely used tool that helps educators identify which philosophical perspectives they are most drawn to, and in what combinations.

Which tradition is right for adult learners? 🔗

The honest answer is: it depends. Adult learners are not a homogeneous group. A first-generation adult seeking literacy skills in a marginalised community has very different needs from a mid-career professional pursuing intellectual enrichment, or a worker undergoing competency-based technical retraining. What each tradition offers is a coherent framework – a set of values and assumptions that, when clearly understood, can guide educators in making deliberate choices about how they teach, what they teach, and why.

What all five traditions share, however, is an implicit acknowledgement that education is never merely technical. It is always grounded in beliefs about human beings – their capacities, their needs, and their relationship to the society around them. For adult educators, developing philosophical awareness is not an academic luxury. It is the foundation of genuinely reflective and effective practice.

What do you think? Reflecting on your own experience as a learner or educator, which of these five philosophical traditions feels most aligned with how you approach education – and why? Do you think a single tradition is sufficient for adult learners with diverse needs, or is an eclectic approach more realistic in practice?

References

1. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Philosophical-Foundations-of-Adult-Education-Elias-Merriam/94f5e3208f9058d676d28115743cf9c0a003f178
2. https://www.academia.edu/45284650/_Philosophical_Foundations_of_Adult_Education_by_J_L_Elias_and_S_B_Merriam
3. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/education/plato-and-education
4. https://www.nationalaffairs.com/publications/detail/liberal-education-for-freedom
5. https://graham.uchicago.edu/program/basic-program-of-liberal-education/
6. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ553242.pdf
7. https://www.structural-learning.com/post/john-deweys-theory
8. https://www.ucls.uchicago.edu/what-is-progressive-education
9. https://sproutsschools.com/john-deweys-4-principles-of-progressive-education/
10. https://adulteducation.quest/understanding-adult-education/philosophies-adult-education-comparative-analysis/
11. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED380552
12. https://www.simplypsychology.org/humanistic.html
13. https://www.structural-learning.com/post/humanistic-psychology
14. https://www.wgu.edu/blog/what-humanistic-learning-theory-education2007.html
15. https://infed.org/dir/welcome/humanistic-orientations-to-learning/
16. https://iep.utm.edu/freire/
17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/379543770_Paulo_Freire_From_Critical_Consciousness_to_the_Pedagogy_of_the_Oppressed
18. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/paulo-freire